Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer

Kant 1724-1804

Kant is the founder of German Idealism. One of his most famous works titled 'The Critique of knowledge' concludes that mind exists over matter. His other famous book called 'The Critique of Pure Reason' outlines that our knowledge is apriori, he does not agree with empiricists thus does not believe our knowledge comes from experience.

Analytic propositions = True by definition, no further knowledge is required. 

Synthetic propositions = True by observation, they tell us something about the world. e.g "All bodies have weight". 

There are two classes of knowledge:

Apriori = before experience - matter of ideas

Aposteriori = after experience - matter of fact

Phenomena = the creation of the mind

Noumena = the real 'thing in itself' 

Kant holds that immediate objects of perception are due partly to external things and partly to our own perceptive apparatus. What we perceive appears in two parts:

1. The object which is called 'sensation'

2. Subjective Apparatus

Kant says that God, Freedom, and Immortality are the three ideas of reason and pure reason leads us to form these ideas.

Space and time are necessary pre-conditions for existence. God is the only thing that could exist outside of space and time, so Kant moves God in to the realm of agnosticism. If you are an agnostic, which Kant is, then you believe that the existence of God is unknowable. He may or may not exist, but there is no need for a creator or first cause (God) because cause and effect are mental phenomena. 

Ethics - Philosophical study of moral action

Consequentialism - divides right from wrong based on the consequences of an action 'end justifies the means'

Deontology- position that consequences don't matter because moral judgement is contained in the act alone

^ This is what Kant believes in, as he believes we have an inner moral law.

Categorical Imperative - Morality is derived from rationality; all moral judgments are rational. 

Three Maxims:

1. Universality - only do it if you think it would be okay for everybody to do it all the time.

2. End Vs Means - everyone is their own rational agent and no one person can be manipulated, we should never lie.

3. Behave as though you are the moral authority of the entire universe. 

His gravestone inscription reads... "My life has been guided by two great mysteries - The starry heavens above and the moral law within."

Kant comes first and Hegel and Schopenhauer are his pupils, but also his rivals. Hegel was as significant and dominant in 19th European Philosophy as Aristotle was in the middle ages. 

Hegel 1770-1831
Hegel is a historicist, he brings history into philosophy for the first time. He is a strong believer in "things happen for a reason." Hegel believes nothing is completely real except the 'whole' which he called the 'absolute'. He only classified the large organism known as the whole to be real, anything that was separate and thus small units were not part of reality.

Hegel believes "change is the only constant" meaning the only thing that does not change is change.

The Triad- Thesis, Antithesis, Sythesis
The thesis is the idea, the antithesis is the opposing idea, and the synthesis is the new proposition of the thesis and antithesis combined. The logic is that you need two opposing ideas, because nothing can exist without an opposite.
A good example to use is 'Good and Evil'. How would you know what was good on this earth if you didn't know what was evil? Without knowing the opposite you wouldn't know it existed.

Hegel describes the state as an 'organic state', he feels it should not restrain people from doing what they want and that it should give citizens independence as well as uphold the life and property.
Zeitgeist - 'Zeit' meaning time and 'Geist' meaning universal soul : 'Spirit of the times'
Hegel uses the term 'geist' to describe the state, as it is the free soul of the universe; his idea of freedom is to obey the law, he believes that without law there is no freedom.

Schopenhauer 1788 - 1860

Schopenhauer disliked Christianity, he preferred religions of India such as Buddhism and Hinduism.
The noumena of the universe as a thing in itself - 'The Will' - everything that exists has a will.

Radio - Lecture 1

Rizzo introduced us to Radio with the key concept that it is "immediate, intimate and personal". Radio unlike television grasps a more intimate relationship with its listeners, it has a more personal aspect as it is more friendly and inclusive. 

Radio was initially the biggest form of broadcast for news, before television and the BBC came about. Radio Journalism tells its stories differently to other forms of journalism such as print. 

Headlines - One line summary of each main story

Bulletins - These usually start with headlines, and can include two way conversations between reporters, audio cuts of interviews, press conferences, expert comment, actuality and Vox Pops*. Bulletins last between 2-5 minutes. 

News Programmes - These often begin with headlines too, they explore the top stories in greater detail and additional stories too. It can include interviews, either live or pre-recorded, outside broadcasts, two ways, debate, commentary, and packages. 

Magazine Programmes -  These are less likely to include headlines or bulletins. It can include features, letters, competitions, gossip and phone-ins.  It can use the same types of content used by a news programme, and it often covers issues that are both topical and timeless.

Packages - The cue is read by a presenter, packages include introduction and conclusion with links to a reporter either in the studio or at a location. They may also include one of more interviewees, vox pops, music, actuality and archive clips, all of which are then packaged together. 

Documentaries - These are extended packages or features which explore a particular subject matter or issue in greater depth. 

The target audience is the most important factor for radio, it determines the style and format of the show. For instance, Radio 4 is one of few radio stations to be purely speech, the stories go in to depth and they are formal and factual. This appeals to people 40 years plus. Whereas, Radio 1's stories are far more brief and are spoken with backing music which is called a bed. Radio 1 also includes music and is therefore aimed towards younger people in the 16-24 age bracket. Target audience is determined by age and social demographic (A, B C1 C2 D E) peoples occupation is a key clue to their social demographic, as it displays peoples ages and income. 

*Vox pops - This is one question, with a collection of responses from different people with their view on the same question. 

This is what we set out to do. Rizzo set us the task of first booking out equipment- marantz, microphone and headphones (not as simple as it sounds) so that we could be on our way into town to interview the people of Winchester! Although at first it seemed daunting, I soon got over the fact some people were not interested, and moved on when you heard excuses and no's. The question was: "In what ways do you think people act differently on social networking sites, compared to face to face". Even though a younger age group are easier to approach, and they were likely to know more on the subject matter, we managed to get some good clear responses from all age groups and gender; a personal highlight was a police woman! I look forward to editing the audio we got next week! 

Cobbett and Dickens

William Cobbet was born in 1763, he was in the army for 7 years between 1784 - 1791, but he was forced to flee to America after exploiting military corruption. It was there in America, where he began his career as a Journalist. His most famous work "Rural Rides" contains his travel writing which paints a vivid image of his journeys; all of which are very detailed and descriptive. During his Winchester accounts, he describes the place as one of England's finest spots, "Here are hill, dell, water, meadows, woods, corn-fields, downs: and all of them very fine and very beautifully disposed.". Cobbett was elected to Parliament in 1832 but sadly died in 1835. 

Cobbett was an anti-radical who became a radical because he thought that rapid industrialisation was going to destroy traditional ways of life. He was convinced that farmers faced ruin. Cobbett describes the farm workers as "walking skeletons" as he was shocked by the state of the countryside when he returned from the army.

Cobbett was nearly 60 when he began to write Rural Rides, he wrote this piece as a social reformer and a farmer. This is the book he is most famous for. He rode on horseback around Southeast England and the English Midlands making observations of what was happening in the towns. He was unhappy with the decisions that were made by Parliament as he felt they were focusing on the industrialisation of Britain without seeing the effects it was having on rural life.

Cobbett was against the Corn Laws which put tax on imported grain; he saw this as unfair to poor workers. The public campaigned for Parliamentary reform, and Cobbett supported this, and therefore had to serve 2 years in jail. The government were afraid that more riots would break out so they introduced the Reform Act in 1832.

He also wrote the  Political Register which was a weekly newspaper with a middle class readership. It later turned in to a Pamphlet after tax was placed on newspapers. Critics named it "Two Penny Trash". He had no time for the government that taxed the farmers.

Dickens 
London was the largest City population wise, it is the capital of the most advanced country economically, politically and industrially. Between 1800 - 1850 the population had doubled causing tremendous poverty and a fall in infrastructure and sanitation.

Dickens worked as a parliamentary reporter but he was disappointed with Parliament as he believed the poor were entitled to decent homes and education too.  He claimed the state only involved themselves if it criminalised or imprisoned them.

French and Industrial Revolution

The return of HCJ...

French Revolution was the turning point in European Politics

There were two empires, the British Empire and the Great Scottish Empire. In 1707 the Act of Union joined England and Scotland after they surrendered sovereignty. Scotland was financially and psychologically knackered after it did not recover from its disastrous attempt of setting up a coloney in Central America in 1698. They also tried in Darien, New Caledonia, which cost Scotland one fifth of their wealth. It left the place in a malarial swamp where settlers suffered from fever and starvation so they soon fled. 

England did well to recover from the French Revolution despite the introduction of Income tax in 1799 to pay for the war effort. The British Naval Power was absolute and the blockades of the French ports destroyed french trade and created a boom for British exports. The British even manufactured the French Armies clothing and uniform! The other European armies were occupied, so the British started building its empire. 

The Transatlantic Triangular Trade -  This was greatly profitable for Britain. It came in the form of cotton, sugar and slaves. In 16th Century 1 million slaves transported from Africa to America, In 17th Century 3 million and in 18th century 7 million. 

The end of the war signaled the end of the boom. This caused widespread unemployment, causing a significant drop in wages. Therefore the government brought in the Corn Laws which put a tarrif on imported grains.

Industrial Revolution transformed Britain and the World

Manchester City was classified as Revolutionary, it was something that had never been seen before. Between the years of 1760 - 1830 the population shot up from 17,000 to 180,000. Manchester was the center of the industrial revolution, but it was hell on earth, there was desperate pollution and people suffered from illnesses such as chest infections and rickets. Cotton was a key raw material in the industrial revolution, it came from the slave plantations in the American South. 

Policy of Enclosure - Landowners had to expand fields because of new and bigger machinery. It used to be 'common land' where there was an open area for local villagers who could use the land for their livestock. This gave small farmers the opportunity to sustain a livelihood keeping them above the breadline. However, thousands of other farmers were left landless and therefore driven in to cities such as Manchester, causing a population boom that they struggled to deal with.
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Peterloo Massacre - This took place in the year 1819, which was a period of intense political pressure. Less than 2% of the population could vote, and the fact Village old Sarum had 11 voters and two MP's whilst larger cities such as Manchester and Leeds had none, was evidently a sign of political corruption. Around 60,000 protesters demanding parliamentary reform were charged at by a cavalry (soldiers on horseback). As a result hundreds suffered serious injuries as they were cut and trampled over, and 11 people died.  

New Poor Law Act 1834 - This act stated that no able bodied person was to receive money or any other form  of help from the poor law authorities except in a workhouse. However, conditions were made extremely harsh in Workhouses, and they would have to work long hours, this was to discourage people from wanting to receive help. 

Bentham's utilitarianism was the theory of happiness as pleasure in the absence of pain, this explains that what people see at first as appealing e.g claim benefits through working in a workhouse, may in fact not be. We judge our actions by their consequences by favouring those that promote our happiness and reduce pain.   

Jeremy Bamber Case

Lately, I have gone on a bit of a mad researching craze about cases relating to miscarriages of Justice. This has come about after watching 'Conviction' the film I previously blogged about, and a conversation I had about an account of a man who is in jail after 26 years for a crime he did not commit. This has  spiraled off my interest to research the ins and outs of the case, leading to inquisitive thoughts to "whodunit?".

Jeremy Bamber  [Source:Wikipedia]

It is the Jeremy Bamber case which I am sure many are familiar with. - Video below gives an overview of the crime, but to summarise - He has been convicted for the murder of 5 family relatives - his adopted Sister Sheila and her two sons, as well the parents June Bamber and Neville. He had been sentenced to jail for five life terms serving at least 25 years, however, in 1994 he was told he would be sentenced to a life tarrif and never be released. He is 1/38 prisoners in the UK to have been told they will never be free, and most significantly the only one to protest his innocence. 

There are so many details and conspiracies about this case, the whole investigation has been extremely misconducted by the Essex Police. Some vital evidence including the burning of the bedding and carpets of the house in which the murder was committed, as well as some key photographic evidence failed to be discussed and shown to the Jury in court. The jury voted 10:2 guilty:innocent.

The Wikipedia page has all there is to know about the case, and it explains both the prosecution and defense case. It entails all the details there is to know for you to make up your own mind. I stand by the fact Bamber has been wrongly convicted, and I believe his schizophrenic adopted sister Sheila is to blame for it. It is an intense and gripping case, definitely worth reading about: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Bamber

I am hooked on discovering more. I am following his consultants twitter page, as well as his offical website http://www.jeremy-bamber.co.uk/home with all the latest updates:

"The European Court of Human Rights is to announce their judgement on Jeremy's appeal against his whole life tariff on their web site on the 17th January 2012"
This is the day I hope Jeremy is finally given the Justice he deserves, he has fought tirelessly to clear his name. This will be his third appeal, which I hope he wins to end the torment he has unjustly suffered. 

'Conviction' - A True story about a Miscarriage of Justice

I watched a film called ‘Conviction’ which is based upon the Kenny Waters case. This true story happened roughly 30 years ago in the 1980's in Massachusetts. It brought to my attention how interested I am to study the Innocence Project. The film stars Hilary Swank, who devotes her life to prove her brothers innocence. She goes to Law school in order to train to become a Lawyer so she can defend her brother. A man has been framed by his ex-wife and two other women by providing false statements about him allegedly admitting to murdering a 48-year-old woman. He is wrongly convicted, and imprisoned and in some cases kept in solitarily conferment for 18 years.

Watch the trailer below which gives you an insight into the story line:

His sister is determined to prove her brothers innocence, she does everything imaginable, and regardless of millions of set backs she contacts the Innocence Project in order to help her. After years and years of determination, she finally breaks through by re-examining the DNA evidence, and getting his ex-wife to confess to Perjury. 

The words “you are free to go” where said so simply, no form of compensation will ever get those 18 years he lost. The years of being a father to his young daughter, who believes her dad to be murderer because of her own mothers lies.

It is unbelievable how traumatic and heartbreaking miscarriages of Justice are. I can't imagine how devastating it must be for you and your loved ones to have to deal with the harsh consequences for something you didn’t do knowing all along the real murderer is walking free. It seems so inhuman to sentence an innocent man, no one deserves their life to be snatched away so brutally.

I recommend this film to anyone studying or interested in the innocence project, it is an incredible eye opening story. Click the links below to read the real story behind it.

http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/10/15/eveningnews/main6962732.shtml
http://www.star-telegram.com/2010/11/09/2619048/woman-portrayed-in-conviction.html